Biopsychosocial factors of the individual

All the authors analyzed mention the gender of the student as a factor to be taken into account within the ESD analysis. In our country, males have higher dropout rates than females (Choi de Mendizabal and Calero, 2013; ) (Rizo & Hernández, 2019; Rodríguez-Pineda & Zamora, 2021), specifically 8.4% higher (INE, 2020).

Most of the existing literature on the psychometry of intelligence finds inverse correlations between the student's cognitive ability and ESD, as is the case with the student’s different competencies (Hernández, 2019; Subirant, 2006). In a study carried out by Hernández-Prados and Alcaraz (2018), the weight of this variable reaches a level of 63.4%. However, although the intelligence of the student indeed has an important weight in the continuity of their studies, it is no less true that the perception that the student has about their skills and cognitive ability is also important (Amores et al., 2021). Students who consider themselves intellectually incapable of reaching the required level have a higher risk of dropping out, so perceived self-efficacy is considered a key influence on the intention to drop out of school (Cerdá-Navarro, et al., 2020; Mena et al., 2010).

Several aspects related to the student's personality constitute weighty variables in their decision to abandon or continue their studies in formal education. Studies such as those of (Aramendi and Vega, 2013; Cerdá-Navarro, 2020; Mena et al., 2010, Rizo and Hernández, 2019, Subirant, 2006, among others) highlight the relationship between aspects such as self-esteem, motivation towards the academic environment, and self-concept, with ESD. Concerning this, Martínez-Otero (2006) postulates the importance of achievement motivation, related to the level of the student’s aspirations in making decisions to continue in the educational system, since this variable has maximum influence on the orientation of behavior towards success. This same author also affirms that perseverance improves performance, which is a protective factor against ESD, however, anxiety is positioned as a factor of negative influence on school achievement, increasing the risk of dropping out. Also included within this dimension are variables referring to learning style (Pienda, 2003) and aspects such as tolerance to frustration and immediate satisfaction (Alemany et al., 2013).

Another factor that is related to both school performance and Early School Dropout is the attributional locus of the student. Subjects who attribute their school success to internal and stable factors over time, (ability), and/or internal unstable factors, (effort) produce in the subject feelings of self-confidence, self-esteem, positive assessment, and satisfaction that serve as a prophylactic for school dropout (Barca et al., 2000).

Regarding the habits and lifestyles of students, some studies show that school performance can be affected by the consumption of different electronic communication media (television, video games, and the Internet), which are part of the daily activity of young people in their socialization. In this way, it has been observed that the continued use of electronic media leads to less dedication to study, having an impact on academic performance and, therefore, increasing the risk of ESD ( ; Sauquillo and Bellver, 2008) (Becerra & F, 2011). This problem, in turn, leads to the reduction of hours of sleep, which affects poor school performance due to the alteration of certain executive functions such as concentration and memorization (Davila, 2010), which together with the increase in school absenteeism, form a perfect breeding ground for dropping out of school.

Factors referring to the individual-educational environment relationship

Linked to the above is school absenteeism in secondary school, which frequently leads to ESD, it is one of the factors most clearly associated with addictive substances abuse (Navalón and Ruiz-Callado, 2012). There is a clear relationship between the student's academic performance and ESD (Amores et al., 2021; Rizo & Hernández, 2019), so the person's school history is a factor to take into account in the analysis of the construct. One of the research works that corroborates this, is the one carried out by Mena et al., (2010) where it is stated that students who leave their studies early, present a disengagement with the usual educational practice and low participation in the classroom in the first years of high school. These students stop taking the qualifying tests of many of the subjects, therefore, one of the variables that best predict ESD is absenteeism to the assessment tests of the subjects. In Middle-Grade Professional Training, dropout mainly occurs due to failure to pass a significant number of subjects in the first year.

The lack of study habits and techniques of the student has a great predictive power of academic performance, associated on many occasions with subsequent abandonment, the planning of the study regarding the organization and the making of a realistic schedule being one of the main predictive factors ( ; Martínez-Otero, 2009) (Amores et al., 2021). Together with this, another aspect that foresees school dropout is the repetition of school courses, both in primary and secondary school, so that students who have repeated a grade at some point during compulsory education are more likely to drop out of the educational system (Cerdá-Navarro, 2020; Choi and Mendizabal, 2013; Mena et al., 2010, among others). Both absenteeism and the lack of study habits create a gap between the student's knowledge and competence level and that of the reference group, which is a determining factor in ESD. If there is too much curricular gap, there is a great demotivation and a feeling of lack of ability and frustration in the student that can have an impact on the student's intentionality when considering continuing with their studies (Camacho, 2018).

Psychosocial factors of the family

Several studies show how the social class and the educational levels of the father and/or mother play an important predictive role in the ESD of the descendants. In this sense, students whose parents have higher education are more protected in terms of the risk of dropping out prematurely (Constante-Amores, 2021; Martínez-Otero, 2009; Rizo and Hernández, 2019) (Amores et al., 2021; Rizo & Hernández, 2019). The scarcity of economic resources in families can slow down the educational process of their children (Martínez-Otero, 2009). A low level of family income can make it impossible for the student to attend extracurricular activities, it can also make it difficult to acquire certain school supplies such as reference books or computers (Mora, 2010). Coupled with the above, in families with limited economic resources, the need for their children to enter the labor market as soon as possible increases (Camacho, 2018; Hernández-Prados and Alcaraz, 2018; Subirant, 2006).

Another factor that affects ESD is the possibility of employability in the family environment with low qualifications. The fact of not needing to have a degree to enter the labor market causes the motivation to continue studying to decrease and, therefore, the intention to drop out increases (Camacho, 2018; Subirant, 2006).

To the aforementioned aspects, the country of origin of the families must be added, since an increased risk of abandonment has been verified in foreign families (Rizo & Hernández, 2019), especially when the native language is not Spanish (González -Rodriguez et al., 2010).

The ethnicity to which the student belongs is one of the predictive factors. In Spain, being a gypsy represents an added risk in school dropout (Choi de Mendizabal and Calero, 2013). These same authors also affirm that family disruption constitutes one of the incidence factors, especially in aggressive environments or families at risk of social exclusion (Choi de Mendizabal and Calero, 2013; Mena et al., 2010).

Factors referring to the family-educational environment relationship

Besides the socio-demographic characteristics of the families, the family climate, concerning the children's school environment, has a fundamental importance in that the descendants continue their studies after completing compulsory education. The appreciation of the parents about the usefulness of the education will affect the perception of the children about this fact, which reduces the intention to abandon (Camacho, 2018). When families frequently talk with their children about school, they contribute to improving their involvement in schoolwork and increasing the perception of the usefulness of education (Cerdá et al., 2020; ) (Alemany et al., 2013). Linked to this are aspects such as supervision in carrying out learning activities at home. Pérez-Díaz, et al., (2009) confirm the existence of a direct association between the number of failed subjects and the parental frequency of help in schoolwork, showing that, the higher the involvement, the lower the number of failures and, therefore, less risk of future dropout, since as we have pointed out previously, a poor school history or with repetitions of courses affects school dropout (Camacho, 2018).

Family-center communication is another factor that we find in the literature as a potential predictor of ESD. Those families that speak frequently with their children's teaching team, either in person or through telematic means, reduce their children's intention to abandon education (Hernández-Prados and Álvarez, 2006). This same trend occurs with the use of center applications, social media, and community resources (Camacho, 2018).

It is necessary to highlight as a protective factor against abandonment, the expectations that parents have regarding the ability of their children so that if the expectations are realistic, they increase the student's self-esteem and the feeling of being able to continue with formal education (González-Rodríguez, 2016; Martínez-Otero, 2009).

Contextual factors

Living in a marginal area or neighborhood or a depressed area such as very small towns in rural areas has a negative impact on students abandoning their studies prematurely (Camacho, 2018; Mena et al., 2010). Within the zoning, we find associated factors related to civil society networks such as associations, cultural facilities, and leisure spaces that have a positive impact on the culturization of residents and, in turn, on the decrease in the dropout rate (Subirant, 2006). In turn, related to the socio-cultural level of the area, the influence that society exerts for the individual to continue with their studies is located, so that in more cultured contexts a social pressure is perceived to continue in formal education and obtain a post-compulsory degree (García, 2011).

Within the set of variables that describe the characteristics of the environment, the estimates show a positive effect between residing in an area with a youth unemployment rate higher than the national average and the probability of continuing the studies. This fact can be interpreted by the lower opportunity cost that their decision to extend their academic life entails, thus understanding higher youth unemployment as an incentive for individuals to remain in the educational system (Casquero and Navarro, 2010; Subirant, 2006).

Peer group

Friendships with a low academic level, a group of problematic friends that hinder school progress, acquaintances with a high level of absenteeism, usually exert a great influence in teens to assume the same behavior and increase the risk of dropping out (Sánchez-Alhambra, 2016). In a qualitative study conducted by Mena et al. (2010), with a sample of students who have already abandoned education, it is determined that the key is the pressure to not stand out, to try to not be different from the rest of the group, so that personal expectations are adjusted to the majority in the scope of relationships of each student.

On the other hand, the lack of interpersonal relationships and poor relationships with the group-classroom directly affect dropout (Sánchez-Alhambra, 2016). The feeling of social rejection, not having good social skills, or low participation, increase school absenteeism and subsequent abandonment of the classrooms (Ekstrand, 2015; Esch et al., 2014). However, a good relationship with peers can have a motivating effect to attend school and increase the connection of students with learning and education, serving as a prophylactic for dropping out (Cerdá-Navarro et al., 2021).

Educational Administration factors

Within this factor, public spending on education is one of the most studied aspects when explaining the performance of the education system, since it shows the investment effort that governments make in education. However, in the literature, there is a notable divergence of results and interpretations. In this sense, numerous studies conclude that the variables referring to public spending on education are not decisive when explaining neither educational results nor the ESD rate (Calero, Choi, & Waisgrais, 2010; Marchesi, 2003). In this regard, Hanushek (2006) highlights the erroneous approach proposed by different governments, which take a quantitative approach as the basis for their educational policies, in which they ignore other variables, such as incentives or the institutional structure of the educational system. However, in contrast to this statement, the study byHolmlund, Mcnally, and Viarengo (2010) shows that the increase in spending on education per student significantly increases the results of the students' competency tests. In our country, the study carried out by Pérez-Esparrells and Morales (2012) reveals that the level of education spending in secondary education maintains a negative relationship with educational results, such as the percentage of individuals who fail to obtain an Obligatory Secondary Education (ESO by its acronym in Spanish) degree.

Another of the most controversial variables, since there is also no agreement between researchers, is the ratio of classrooms. Studies such as that ofCalero et al. (2010) do not detect a significant relationship between the ratios that represent the size of the classroom and the educational results in general. On the contrary, other studies show that the existence of smaller classrooms has beneficial effects on educational results ( ; Finn et al., 2005) (Krueger & Whitmore, 2001), pointing out that the reduction of the classroom is a fundamental aspect to guarantee the reduction of failure and ESD, especially in the case of educational contexts with low-performance students (Dale, 2010).

One aspect to take into account is the rigidity of the educational system. UNESCO (2012) published a report that concluded this curricular rigidity as one of the main problems in education, and it is that secondary education systems seem to be designed more to exclude than to include ( ; Recio and De la Cruz, 2011) (Benchimol, Krichesky, & Piogré, 2011). According to Gómez (2012), one of the characteristics of current schools is the transmission of academic knowledge that is not adapted to the needs of today's society nor favors the personal development of future citizens, which affects the demotivation of students and increases the risk of dropping out.Martín and Luna (2016) point out the existence of personalized and flexible learning plans as one of the pillars that would avoid ESD.

Within this dimension, we find teacher training, regarding initial and continued training. In this sense, it should be taken into account that the countries that have lower ESD figures, implement important innovations in the initial and permanent training models, also in the one that concerns the first years of professional life, a very important stage in the process of learning to teach (Vaillant & Marcelo, 2015). Countries such as England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, France, Switzerland, Israel, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, and the United States, all of them with lower dropout rates than our country, have launched various insertion programs for novel teachers.

Factors of the education centers

The education centers constitute the second level of concretion where the curriculum is contextualized. Therefore, it is the competence of the center, the elaboration of the Curricular Project of the Center (PCC by its acronym in Spanish) within the Educational Project of the Center (PEC by its acronym in Spanish). The essential elements that have to emerge from this second level of the concretion are: general objectives, content sequencing, methodological strategies, organization of space and time, and determining the resources and general evaluation criteria.

There is also a wide debate on the incidence of the ownership of the education center on educational results. In this sense, various research works have pointed out that privately-owned education centers, both those with a concert and non-concerted private ones, present notably better results than the public ones in the PISA study ( ; Alegre and Subirats, 2013) (West & Woessmann, 2010). However, other studies reveal that this effect loses its significance when the variables that have to do with the socioeconomic and cultural status of the students are controlled (Calero and Escardíbul, 2007; Mancebón et al., 2012). The weight that the education center has concerning ESD, regardless of the ownership, is materialized in different variables. MMontes and Parcerisa (2016) emphasize that attention to diversity, the type of groupings of students, and the disciplinary mechanisms included in the coexistence plan used with students with behavioral problems, entails the loss of expectations about the academic future and encourages educational disengagement increasing the risk of dropout. In this sense, the methodology is a compensating element of ESD, being more motivating for the students the active methodologies, the more creative methods, and the practical and participatory classes, while the more traditional methodology is more arduous and as a consequence produces the withdrawal of the students from the classrooms (Holgueras, 2016).

One of the aspects that most clearly influence ESD is the evaluation and promotion criteria. The Montessori Canela International organization presents the results of its study on the effects of the numerical grade evaluation system where it is revealed that 90% of the education personnel surveyed relate ESD to an evaluation system that is too strict. The report shows that the current evaluation system has negative consequences on students, generating the false idea that the important thing is to pass and not learn, besides creating stress and demotivation among students (Ecoaula, 2021).

One aspect included in the recommendations related to the reduction of ESD is the development of a good tutoring action plan, which includes individualized guidance and monitoring of students (Carrasco et al., 2015). The role of teachers and bodies such as the center's guidance department is key for students at risk of dropping out of school, promoting their integration into the center and facilitating their reconciliation with their abilities (Clemente, 2010).

Another variable within the dimension we are dealing with is the cooperation between families and the education center. Cooperative experiences are highly positive for preventing ESD, influencing academic performance, student self-esteem, reducing absenteeism, and improving study habits (Álvarez, 2012; ) (Moreno, 2010), all of them, as we have seen in previous paragraphs, variables involved in the prevention of the risk of ESD.

As we have been able to observe throughout this section, we are faced with a complex phenomenon in which personal, family, social, political, economic, and educational factors intervene. Precisely for this reason, it is extremely important to detect the aspects that influence dropout so that socio-educational agents can prematurely identify students at potential risk and intervene as soon as possible to solve this fact to develop compensatory actions aimed at developing an equitable education.

Below, a comprehensive analytical approach to analyze the determinants factors of ESD is shown.

Perceived usefulness

In our field of study, we would be talking about the perception that a student has about the profitability of official degrees after Compulsory Secondary Education. To what level does the student consider that obtaining a degree through the formal system will provide improvements in personal aspects, social prosperity, or obtaining a quality job. In short, the student's appreciation of whether obtaining a degree will bring them personal improvement and socio-labor evolution, compared to not obtaining it.

Some of the variables that this factor analyzes are the usefulness expectations of training and culture, the evaluation of official titles (Mena, et al., 2010), and the requirements for access to the labor market (Alemany et al., 2013), among others.

Perceived self-efficacy

It is a factor that falls as a priority on the ideas of the student and that consists of the hope or perceived possibility that the individual has of obtaining an official degree higher than the compulsory studies.

Within this factor, variables such as the student's perception of their cognitive capacity, their organizational competence, their tolerance to frustration, their capacity for perseverance, their self-esteem and self-concept, among others, will be analyzed ( ; González- Rodríguez, et al., 2016; Hernández-Prados and Alcaraz, 2018) (Pienda, 2003).

Ease of global use

In the case of ESD, this factor would be defined as the appreciation of the magnitude and intensity of effort that the student must make to obtain a post-compulsory degree through the formal educational system. In short, it is the perception that the student presents about how much effort they have to make to obtain this title. The level of ease-difficulty perceived in the successful use of formal education.

This factor is independent of the student's perception of the usefulness and advantages that obtaining a degree can bring. It is a global perception of the difficulty of achieving this, independent of the perceived usefulness factor (see point 4.1.1).

Ease of relative use

This factor is closely related to the previous one insofar as it measures the student's perception of the effort to be made, however, it is far from the ease of global use factor in that the appreciated effort is relative to the student's perception of the advantages, possibilities, and personal and socio-labor improvements that obtaining a post-compulsory degree will bring them. In short, the perception of effort is mediated by the appreciation that it presents of the perceived usefulness factor.

Subjective norm

This variable is defined in a global way as an individual's perception of whether the people important to them approve or disapprove of their behavior (Chen & Dhillon, 2003; Taylor & Todd, 1995). It represents the influence exerted by society in general, and the people that the individual considers important to them in particular when it comes to conditioning their behavior. This influence is generally weighted by the weight that the individual attributes to each person or social group (García, 2011).

Delimiting it to our field, it would suppose the level of influence that the society in general and the people or groups significant for the student in particular, would have so that they continue or abandon their studies. Definitely, insofar as the influence of social norms and the opinion of the subjects appreciated as valuable to the student, will mediate their intention on the abandonment of formal studies after the compulsory ones.

Within this variable are aspects such as family support and climate in subjects related to studies (Alhambra, 2017), perception of the peer group and their educational level (Choi de Mendizabal and Calero, 2013), perception of social prestige with obtaining a degree, the social image of education (Hernández-Prados and Alcaraz, 2018), expectations of teachers (Alemany et al., 2013), among other aspects.

Contextual factor

The context is defined as the set of circumstances that surround a situation and without which it cannot be understood correctly. In the construct of school dropout under study, the contextual variables would be defined as the environment, physical or symbolic, in which the student has developed and/or is at the moment of making the decision. They refer to a set of phenomena, situations, and circumstances, not comparable to others, that surround or condition the intention of continuing with formal studies, or on the contrary, abandoning school early.

Some of these would be the socio-educational level and the educational climate of the family (Choi and Mendizabal, 2016; ) (Rizo & Hernández, 2019), characteristics of the community to which they belong (Bienes, 2019), neighborhood or area of ​​residence (Mena et al., 2010), family composition and typology ( ; Subirant, 2006) (Pienda, 2003), and possibilities of joining the labor market (Hernández-Prados and Alcaraz, 2018; Subirant, 2006), among others.

Functional resources

Within this factor would be framed the variables that indicate the guidelines and regulate educational actions, those that provide the ideal framework of work such as: The collegiate bodies and governing bodies, the climate, the schedules, the evaluation system and method, the proposal of extracurricular activities, coordination with external entities, complementary services, and planning, among others. (Alemany et al., 2013; Camacho, 2018; Choi de Mendizabal and Calero, 2013; Constance-Amores et al., 2021; González-Pienda, 2003; Hernández-Prados and Alcaraz, 2018; Marchesi, 2006; Mena, et al., 2010; Rizo and Hernández, 2019; Sánchez-Alhambra, 2017, and Subirant, 2006) (Alemany et al., 2013; Amores et al., 2021; Pienda, 2003; Rizo & Hernández, 2019).

Material resources

Within this factor are the material elements referred to in the structure of the components present in the educational organization. They are the basic supports on which the others are based, within which we essentially find the space, the movable resources, and the material for didactic use. (Choi de Mendizabal and Calero, 2013; González-Pienda, 2003; Hernández-Prados and Alcaraz, 2018; Rizo and Hernández, 2019; Sánchez-Alhambra, 2017) (Alhambra, 2017; Pienda, 2003; Rizo & Hernández, 2019).

Human resources

Integrated into this factor are the personal elements to which the disposition of the actors present in the educational organization refers, definitely, to the human capital that the school system has. Mainly, it would be made up of students, teachers, the administration team, guidance teams, other educational agents, families, and administration and services personnel (Alemany et al., 2013; Choi de Mendizabal and Calero, 2013; González-Pienda, 2003; González-Rodríguez, et al., 2016; Hernández-Prados and Alcaraz, 2018; Mena, et al, 2010; Rizo and Hernández, 2019; Sánchez-Alhambra, 2017, and Subirant, 2006) (Alemany et al., 2013; Pienda, 2003; Rizo & Hernández, 2019).

Identity

This factor includes variables related to the demographic aspects of the student, in reference to gender, age, real cognitive ability, native language, and ethnicity, among others. (Choi de Mendizabal and Calero, 2013; Constance-Amores et al., 2021; González-Pienda, 2003; Hernández-Prados and Alcaraz, 2018; Mena, et al., 2010; Rizo and Hernández, 2019; Sánchez-Alhambra, 2017; Subirant, 2006) (Alhambra, 2017; Amores et al., 2021; Pienda, 2003; Rizo & Hernández, 2019).

School history

The analysis of the literature on the components of influence of school dropout indicates that the academic history of the student directly intervenes in the resignation of formal training towards obtaining an official degree. Within this factor we find variables such as repetition of school years, need for educational support, schooling schedules, expulsions from the center due to disruptive attitudes, the gap between the student's level of competence compared to the group, school absenteeism, etc. (Camacho, 2018; Choi de Mendizabal and Calero, 2013; Ministry of Education of Castilla León, 2015; González-Pienda, 2003; González-Rodríguez, et al., 2016; Rizo and Hernández, 2019; Sánchez-Alhambra, 2017) (Alhambra, 2017; Pienda, 2003; Rizo & Hernández, 2019).

Personal traits

Several authors assure the influence of the emotional aspects of the student in the decision to abandon school prematurely. According to the classification presented by Gladys, (2002), the potentially influential personal traits can be grouped into two: On the one hand, it would be those related to emotional aspects such as internalization disorders, among which we find variables such as: overcontrol, anxiety, withdrawal, shyness, depression, fear, or the feeling of ridicule. On the other hand, we find externalization disorders, that is, the habits of the student which include variables such as: infra-control, disobedience, and the consumption of addictive substances, etc. (Alemany, et al., 2013; Cerdá, Sureda, and Salvá, 2020; González-Rodríguez, et al., 2016; Rizo and Hernández, 2019) (Alemany et al., 2013; Rizo & Hernández, 2019).

The following figure outlines our integrative approach for the analysis of the determinant factors of ESD.

Source: Self-made